# Operation Reference

This file provides documentation on Alembic migration directives.

The directives here are used within user-defined migration files, within the `upgrade()` and `downgrade()` functions, as well as any functions further invoked by those.

All directives exist as methods on a class called `Operations`. When migration scripts are run, this object is made available to the script via the `alembic.op` datamember, which is a proxy to an actual instance of `Operations`. Currently, `alembic.op` is a real Python module, populated with individual proxies for each method on `Operations`, so symbols can be imported safely from the `alembic.op` namespace.

The `Operations` system is also fully extensible. See Operation Plugins for details on this.

A key design philosophy to the Operation Directives methods is that to the greatest degree possible, they internally generate the appropriate SQLAlchemy metadata, typically involving `Table` and `Constraint` objects. This so that migration instructions can be given in terms of just the string names and/or flags involved. The exceptions to this rule include the `add_column()` and `create_table()` directives, which require full `Column` objects, though the table metadata is still generated here.

The functions here all require that a `MigrationContext` has been configured within the `env.py` script first, which is typically via `EnvironmentContext.configure()`. Under normal circumstances they are called from an actual migration script, which itself would be invoked by the `EnvironmentContext.run_migrations()` method.

class `alembic.operations.``Operations`(migration_context, impl=None)

  Define high level migration operations.

  Each operation corresponds to some schema migration operation, executed against a particular `MigrationContext` which in turn represents connectivity to a database, or a file output stream.

  While `Operations` is normally configured as part of the `EnvironmentContext.run_migrations()` method called from an `env.py` script, a standalone `Operations` instance can be made for use cases external to regular Alembic migrations by passing in a `MigrationContext`:

      from alembic.migration import MigrationContext
      from alembic.operations import Operations

      conn = myengine.connect()
      ctx = MigrationContext.configure(conn)
      op = Operations(ctx)

      op.alter_column("t", "c", nullable=True)

  Note that as of 0.8, most of the methods on this class are produced dynamically using the `Operations.register_operation()` method.

  Construct a new `Operations`

  Parameters: | migration_context – a `MigrationContext` instance.

  `add_column`(table_name, column, schema=None)

    Issue an “add column” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        from sqlalchemy import Column, String

        op.add_column('organization',
            Column('name', String())
        )

    The provided `Column` object can also specify a `ForeignKey`, referencing a remote table name. Alembic will automatically generate a stub “referenced” table and emit a second ALTER statement in order to add the constraint separately:

        from alembic import op
        from sqlalchemy import Column, INTEGER, ForeignKey

        op.add_column('organization',
            Column('account_id', INTEGER, ForeignKey('accounts.id'))
        )

    Note that this statement uses the `Column` construct as is from the SQLAlchemy library. In particular, default values to be created on the database side are specified using the `server_default` parameter, and not `default` which only specifies Python-side defaults:

        from alembic import op
        from sqlalchemy import Column, TIMESTAMP, func

        # specify "DEFAULT NOW" along with the column add
        op.add_column('account',
            Column('timestamp', TIMESTAMP, server_default=func.now())
        )

    Parameters: | table_name – String name of the parent table. column – a `sqlalchemy.schema.Column` object representing the new column. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

  `alter_column`(table_name, column_name, nullable=None, server_default=False, new_column_name=None, type_=None, existing_type=None, existing_server_default=False, existing_nullable=None, schema=None, **kw)

    Issue an “alter column” instruction using the current migration context.

    Generally, only that aspect of the column which is being changed, i.e. name, type, nullability, default, needs to be specified. Multiple changes can also be specified at once and the backend should “do the right thing”, emitting each change either separately or together as the backend allows.

    MySQL has special requirements here, since MySQL cannot ALTER a column without a full specification. When producing MySQL-compatible migration files, it is recommended that the `existing_type`, `existing_server_default`, and `existing_nullable` parameters be present, if not being altered.

    Type changes which are against the SQLAlchemy “schema” types `Boolean` and `Enum` may also add or drop constraints which accompany those types on backends that don’t support them natively. The `existing_server_default` argument is used in this case as well to remove a previous constraint.

    Parameters: | table_name – string name of the target table. column_name – string name of the target column, as it exists before the operation begins. nullable – Optional; specify `True` or `False` to alter the column’s nullability. server_default – Optional; specify a string SQL expression, `text()`, or `DefaultClause` to indicate an alteration to the column’s default value. Set to `None` to have the default removed. new_column_name – Optional; specify a string name here to indicate the new name within a column rename operation. type_ – Optional; a `TypeEngine` type object to specify a change to the column’s type. For SQLAlchemy types that also indicate a constraint (i.e. `Boolean`, `Enum`), the constraint is also generated. autoincrement – set the `AUTO_INCREMENT` flag of the column; currently understood by the MySQL dialect. existing_type – Optional; a `TypeEngine` type object to specify the previous type. This is required for all MySQL column alter operations that don’t otherwise specify a new type, as well as for when nullability is being changed on a SQL Server column. It is also used if the type is a so-called SQLlchemy “schema” type which may define a constraint (i.e. `Boolean`, `Enum`), so that the constraint can be dropped. existing_server_default – Optional; The existing default value of the column. Required on MySQL if an existing default is not being changed; else MySQL removes the default. existing_nullable – Optional; the existing nullability of the column. Required on MySQL if the existing nullability is not being changed; else MySQL sets this to NULL. existing_autoincrement – Optional; the existing autoincrement of the column. Used for MySQL’s system of altering a column that specifies `AUTO_INCREMENT`. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

  `batch_alter_table`(*args, **kwds)

    Invoke a series of per-table migrations in batch.

    Batch mode allows a series of operations specific to a table to be syntactically grouped together, and allows for alternate modes of table migration, in particular the “recreate” style of migration required by SQLite.

    “recreate” style is as follows:

    1. A new table is created with the new specification, based on the migration directives within the batch, using a temporary name.
    2. the data copied from the existing table to the new table.
    3. the existing table is dropped.
    4. the new table is renamed to the existing table name.

    The directive by default will only use “recreate” style on the SQLite backend, and only if directives are present which require this form, e.g. anything other than `add_column()`. The batch operation on other backends will proceed using standard ALTER TABLE operations.

    The method is used as a context manager, which returns an instance of `BatchOperations`; this object is the same as `Operations` except that table names and schema names are omitted. E.g.:

        with op.batch_alter_table("some_table") as batch_op:
            batch_op.add_column(Column('foo', Integer))
            batch_op.drop_column('bar')

    The operations within the context manager are invoked at once when the context is ended. When run against SQLite, if the migrations include operations not supported by SQLite’s ALTER TABLE, the entire table will be copied to a new one with the new specification, moving all data across as well.

    The copy operation by default uses reflection to retrieve the current structure of the table, and therefore `batch_alter_table()` in this mode requires that the migration is run in “online” mode. The `copy_from` parameter may be passed which refers to an existing `Table` object, which will bypass this reflection step.

    Note

    The table copy operation will currently not copy CHECK constraints, and may not copy UNIQUE constraints that are unnamed, as is possible on SQLite. See the section Dealing with Constraints for workarounds.

    Parameters: | table_name – name of table schema – optional schema name. recreate – under what circumstances the table should be recreated. At its default of `"auto"`, the SQLite dialect will recreate the table if any operations other than `add_column()`, `create_index()`, or `drop_index()` are present. Other options include `"always"` and `"never"`. copy_from – optional `Table` object that will act as the structure of the table being copied. If omitted, table reflection is used to retrieve the structure of the table. New in version 0.7.6: Fully implemented the `copy_from` parameter. See also Working in Offline Mode `reflect_args` `reflect_kwargs` reflect_args – a sequence of additional positional arguments that will be applied to the table structure being reflected / copied; this may be used to pass column and constraint overrides to the table that will be reflected, in lieu of passing the whole `Table` using `copy_from`. New in version 0.7.1. reflect_kwargs – a dictionary of additional keyword arguments that will be applied to the table structure being copied; this may be used to pass additional table and reflection options to the table that will be reflected, in lieu of passing the whole `Table` using `copy_from`. New in version 0.7.1. table_args – a sequence of additional positional arguments that will be applied to the new `Table` when created, in addition to those copied from the source table. This may be used to provide additional constraints such as CHECK constraints that may not be reflected. table_kwargs – a dictionary of additional keyword arguments that will be applied to the new `Table` when created, in addition to those copied from the source table. This may be used to provide for additional table options that may not be reflected.

    New in version 0.7.0.

    Parameters: | naming_convention – a naming convention dictionary of the form described at Integration of Naming Conventions into Operations, Autogenerate which will be applied to the `MetaData` during the reflection process. This is typically required if one wants to drop SQLite constraints, as these constraints will not have names when reflected on this backend. Requires SQLAlchemy 0.9.4 or greater. See also Dropping Unnamed or Named Foreign Key Constraints New in version 0.7.1.

    Note

    batch mode requires SQLAlchemy 0.8 or above.

    See also

    Running “Batch” Migrations for SQLite and Other Databases

  `bulk_insert`(table, rows, multiinsert=True)

    Issue a “bulk insert” operation using the current migration context.

    This provides a means of representing an INSERT of multiple rows which works equally well in the context of executing on a live connection as well as that of generating a SQL script. In the case of a SQL script, the values are rendered inline into the statement.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        from datetime import date
        from sqlalchemy.sql import table, column
        from sqlalchemy import String, Integer, Date

        # Create an ad-hoc table to use for the insert statement.
        accounts_table = table('account',
            column('id', Integer),
            column('name', String),
            column('create_date', Date)
        )

        op.bulk_insert(accounts_table,
            [
                {'id':1, 'name':'John Smith',
                        'create_date':date(2010, 10, 5)},
                {'id':2, 'name':'Ed Williams',
                        'create_date':date(2007, 5, 27)},
                {'id':3, 'name':'Wendy Jones',
                        'create_date':date(2008, 8, 15)},
            ]
        )

    When using –sql mode, some datatypes may not render inline automatically, such as dates and other special types. When this issue is present, `Operations.inline_literal()` may be used:

        op.bulk_insert(accounts_table,
            [
                {'id':1, 'name':'John Smith',
                        'create_date':op.inline_literal("2010-10-05")},
                {'id':2, 'name':'Ed Williams',
                        'create_date':op.inline_literal("2007-05-27")},
                {'id':3, 'name':'Wendy Jones',
                        'create_date':op.inline_literal("2008-08-15")},
            ],
            multiinsert=False
        )

    When using `Operations.inline_literal()` in conjunction with `Operations.bulk_insert()`, in order for the statement to work in “online” (e.g. non –sql) mode, the `multiinsert` flag should be set to `False`, which will have the effect of individual INSERT statements being emitted to the database, each with a distinct VALUES clause, so that the “inline” values can still be rendered, rather than attempting to pass the values as bound parameters.

    New in version 0.6.4: `Operations.inline_literal()` can now be used with `Operations.bulk_insert()`, and the `multiinsert` flag has been added to assist in this usage when running in “online” mode.

    Parameters: | table – a table object which represents the target of the INSERT. rows – a list of dictionaries indicating rows. multiinsert – when at its default of True and –sql mode is not enabled, the INSERT statement will be executed using “executemany()” style, where all elements in the list of dictionaries are passed as bound parameters in a single list. Setting this to False results in individual INSERT statements being emitted per parameter set, and is needed in those cases where non-literal values are present in the parameter sets. New in version 0.6.4.

  `create_check_constraint`(constraint_name, table_name, condition, schema=None, **kw)

    Issue a “create check constraint” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        from sqlalchemy.sql import column, func

        op.create_check_constraint(
            "ck_user_name_len",
            "user",
            func.len(column('name')) > 5
        )

    CHECK constraints are usually against a SQL expression, so ad-hoc table metadata is usually needed. The function will convert the given arguments into a `sqlalchemy.schema.CheckConstraint` bound to an anonymous table in order to emit the CREATE statement.

    Parameters: | name – Name of the check constraint. The name is necessary so that an ALTER statement can be emitted. For setups that use an automated naming scheme such as that described at Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions, `name` here can be `None`, as the event listener will apply the name to the constraint object when it is associated with the table. table_name – String name of the source table. condition – SQL expression that’s the condition of the constraint. Can be a string or SQLAlchemy expression language structure. deferrable – optional bool. If set, emit DEFERRABLE or NOT DEFERRABLE when issuing DDL for this constraint. initially – optional string. If set, emit INITIALLY <value> when issuing DDL for this constraint. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
    - source -> table_name
  `create_foreign_key`(constraint_name, source_table, referent_table, local_cols, remote_cols, onupdate=None, ondelete=None, deferrable=None, initially=None, match=None, source_schema=None, referent_schema=None, **dialect_kw)

    Issue a “create foreign key” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        op.create_foreign_key(
                    "fk_user_address", "address",
                    "user", ["user_id"], ["id"])

    This internally generates a `Table` object containing the necessary columns, then generates a new `ForeignKeyConstraint` object which it then associates with the `Table`. Any event listeners associated with this action will be fired off normally. The `AddConstraint` construct is ultimately used to generate the ALTER statement.

    Parameters: | name – Name of the foreign key constraint. The name is necessary so that an ALTER statement can be emitted. For setups that use an automated naming scheme such as that described at Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions, `name` here can be `None`, as the event listener will apply the name to the constraint object when it is associated with the table. source_table – String name of the source table. referent_table – String name of the destination table. local_cols – a list of string column names in the source table. remote_cols – a list of string column names in the remote table. onupdate – Optional string. If set, emit ON UPDATE <value> when issuing DDL for this constraint. Typical values include CASCADE, DELETE and RESTRICT. ondelete – Optional string. If set, emit ON DELETE <value> when issuing DDL for this constraint. Typical values include CASCADE, DELETE and RESTRICT. deferrable – optional bool. If set, emit DEFERRABLE or NOT DEFERRABLE when issuing DDL for this constraint. source_schema – Optional schema name of the source table. referent_schema – Optional schema name of the destination table.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
    - source -> source_table
    - referent -> referent_table
  `create_index`(index_name, table_name, columns, schema=None, unique=False, **kw)

    Issue a “create index” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        op.create_index('ik_test', 't1', ['foo', 'bar'])

    Functional indexes can be produced by using the `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.text()` construct:

        from alembic import op
        from sqlalchemy import text
        op.create_index('ik_test', 't1', [text('lower(foo)')])

    New in version 0.6.7: support for making use of the `text()` construct in conjunction with `Operations.create_index()` in order to produce functional expressions within CREATE INDEX.

    Parameters: | index_name – name of the index. table_name – name of the owning table. columns – a list consisting of string column names and/or `text()` constructs. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct. unique – If True, create a unique index. quote – Force quoting of this column’s name on or off, corresponding to `True` or `False`. When left at its default of `None`, the column identifier will be quoted according to whether the name is case sensitive (identifiers with at least one upper case character are treated as case sensitive), or if it’s a reserved word. This flag is only needed to force quoting of a reserved word which is not known by the SQLAlchemy dialect. **kw – Additional keyword arguments not mentioned above are dialect specific, and passed in the form `<dialectname>_<argname>`. See the documentation regarding an individual dialect at Dialects for detail on documented arguments.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> index_name
  `create_primary_key`(constraint_name, table_name, columns, schema=None)

    Issue a “create primary key” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        op.create_primary_key(
                    "pk_my_table", "my_table",
                    ["id", "version"]
                )

    This internally generates a `Table` object containing the necessary columns, then generates a new `PrimaryKeyConstraint` object which it then associates with the `Table`. Any event listeners associated with this action will be fired off normally. The `AddConstraint` construct is ultimately used to generate the ALTER statement.

    Parameters: | name – Name of the primary key constraint. The name is necessary so that an ALTER statement can be emitted. For setups that use an automated naming scheme such as that described at Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions `name` here can be `None`, as the event listener will apply the name to the constraint object when it is associated with the table. table_name – String name of the target table. columns – a list of string column names to be applied to the primary key constraint. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
    - cols -> columns
  `create_table`(table_name, *columns, **kw)

    Issue a “create table” instruction using the current migration context.

    This directive receives an argument list similar to that of the traditional `sqlalchemy.schema.Table` construct, but without the metadata:

        from sqlalchemy import INTEGER, VARCHAR, NVARCHAR, Column
        from alembic import op

        op.create_table(
            'account',
            Column('id', INTEGER, primary_key=True),
            Column('name', VARCHAR(50), nullable=False),
            Column('description', NVARCHAR(200)),
            Column('timestamp', TIMESTAMP, server_default=func.now())
        )

    Note that `create_table()` accepts `Column` constructs directly from the SQLAlchemy library. In particular, default values to be created on the database side are specified using the `server_default` parameter, and not `default` which only specifies Python-side defaults:

        from alembic import op
        from sqlalchemy import Column, TIMESTAMP, func

        # specify "DEFAULT NOW" along with the "timestamp" column
        op.create_table('account',
            Column('id', INTEGER, primary_key=True),
            Column('timestamp', TIMESTAMP, server_default=func.now())
        )

    The function also returns a newly created `Table` object, corresponding to the table specification given, which is suitable for immediate SQL operations, in particular `Operations.bulk_insert()`:

        from sqlalchemy import INTEGER, VARCHAR, NVARCHAR, Column
        from alembic import op

        account_table = op.create_table(
            'account',
            Column('id', INTEGER, primary_key=True),
            Column('name', VARCHAR(50), nullable=False),
            Column('description', NVARCHAR(200)),
            Column('timestamp', TIMESTAMP, server_default=func.now())
        )

        op.bulk_insert(
            account_table,
            [
                {"name": "A1", "description": "account 1"},
                {"name": "A2", "description": "account 2"},
            ]
        )

    New in version 0.7.0.

    Parameters: | table_name – Name of the table *columns – collection of `Column` objects within the table, as well as optional `Constraint` objects and `Index` objects. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct. **kw – Other keyword arguments are passed to the underlying `sqlalchemy.schema.Table` object created for the command.
    Returns: | the `Table` object corresponding to the parameters given. New in version 0.7.0: - the `Table` object is returned.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> table_name
  `create_unique_constraint`(constraint_name, table_name, columns, schema=None, **kw)

    Issue a “create unique constraint” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        from alembic import op
        op.create_unique_constraint("uq_user_name", "user", ["name"])

    This internally generates a `Table` object containing the necessary columns, then generates a new `UniqueConstraint` object which it then associates with the `Table`. Any event listeners associated with this action will be fired off normally. The `AddConstraint` construct is ultimately used to generate the ALTER statement.

    Parameters: | name – Name of the unique constraint. The name is necessary so that an ALTER statement can be emitted. For setups that use an automated naming scheme such as that described at Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions, `name` here can be `None`, as the event listener will apply the name to the constraint object when it is associated with the table. table_name – String name of the source table. columns – a list of string column names in the source table. deferrable – optional bool. If set, emit DEFERRABLE or NOT DEFERRABLE when issuing DDL for this constraint. initially – optional string. If set, emit INITIALLY <value> when issuing DDL for this constraint. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
    - source -> table_name
    - local_cols -> columns
  `drop_column`(table_name, column_name, schema=None, **kw)

    Issue a “drop column” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        drop_column('organization', 'account_id')

    Parameters: | table_name – name of table column_name – name of column schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct. mssql_drop_check – Optional boolean. When `True`, on Microsoft SQL Server only, first drop the CHECK constraint on the column using a SQL-script-compatible block that selects into a @variable from sys.check_constraints, then exec’s a separate DROP CONSTRAINT for that constraint. mssql_drop_default – Optional boolean. When `True`, on Microsoft SQL Server only, first drop the DEFAULT constraint on the column using a SQL-script-compatible block that selects into a @variable from sys.default_constraints, then exec’s a separate DROP CONSTRAINT for that default. mssql_drop_foreign_key – Optional boolean. When `True`, on Microsoft SQL Server only, first drop a single FOREIGN KEY constraint on the column using a SQL-script-compatible block that selects into a @variable from sys.foreign_keys/sys.foreign_key_columns, then exec’s a separate DROP CONSTRAINT for that default. Only works if the column has exactly one FK constraint which refers to it, at the moment. New in version 0.6.2.

  `drop_constraint`(constraint_name, table_name, type_=None, schema=None)

    Drop a constraint of the given name, typically via DROP CONSTRAINT.

    Parameters: | constraint_name – name of the constraint. table_name – table name. type_ – optional, required on MySQL. can be ‘foreignkey’, ‘primary’, ‘unique’, or ‘check’. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
  `drop_index`(index_name, table_name=None, schema=None)

    Issue a “drop index” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        drop_index("accounts")

    Parameters: | index_name – name of the index. table_name – name of the owning table. Some backends such as Microsoft SQL Server require this. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> index_name
  `drop_table`(table_name, schema=None, **kw)

    Issue a “drop table” instruction using the current migration context.

    e.g.:

        drop_table("accounts")

    Parameters: | table_name – Name of the table schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct. **kw – Other keyword arguments are passed to the underlying `sqlalchemy.schema.Table` object created for the command.

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> table_name
  `execute`(sqltext, execution_options=None)

    Execute the given SQL using the current migration context.

    In a SQL script context, the statement is emitted directly to the output stream. There is no return result, however, as this function is oriented towards generating a change script that can run in “offline” mode. For full interaction with a connected database, use the “bind” available from the context:

        from alembic import op
        connection = op.get_bind()

    Also note that any parameterized statement here will not work in offline mode - INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE statements which refer to literal values would need to render inline expressions. For simple use cases, the `inline_literal()` function can be used for rudimentary quoting of string values. For “bulk” inserts, consider using `bulk_insert()`.

    For example, to emit an UPDATE statement which is equally compatible with both online and offline mode:

        from sqlalchemy.sql import table, column
        from sqlalchemy import String
        from alembic import op

        account = table('account',
            column('name', String)
        )
        op.execute(
            account.update().\
                where(account.c.name==op.inline_literal('account 1')).\
                values({'name':op.inline_literal('account 2')})
                )

    Note above we also used the SQLAlchemy `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.table()` and `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.column()` constructs to make a brief, ad-hoc table construct just for our UPDATE statement. A full `Table` construct of course works perfectly fine as well, though note it’s a recommended practice to at least ensure the definition of a table is self-contained within the migration script, rather than imported from a module that may break compatibility with older migrations.

    Parameters: | sql – Any legal SQLAlchemy expression, including:

    - a string
    - a `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.text()` construct.
    - a `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.insert()` construct.
    - a `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.update()`, `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.insert()`, or `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.delete()` construct.
    - Pretty much anything that’s “executable” as described in SQL Expression Language Tutorial.

    Parameters: | execution_options – Optional dictionary of execution options, will be passed to `sqlalchemy.engine.Connection.execution_options()`.

  `f`(name)

    Indicate a string name that has already had a naming convention applied to it.

    This feature combines with the SQLAlchemy `naming_convention` feature to disambiguate constraint names that have already had naming conventions applied to them, versus those that have not. This is necessary in the case that the `"%(constraint_name)s"` token is used within a naming convention, so that it can be identified that this particular name should remain fixed.

    If the `Operations.f()` is used on a constraint, the naming convention will not take effect:

        op.add_column('t', 'x', Boolean(name=op.f('ck_bool_t_x')))

    Above, the CHECK constraint generated will have the name `ck_bool_t_x` regardless of whether or not a naming convention is in use.

    Alternatively, if a naming convention is in use, and ‘f’ is not used, names will be converted along conventions. If the `target_metadata` contains the naming convention `{"ck": "ck_bool_%(table_name)s_%(constraint_name)s"}`, then the output of the following:

    > op.add_column(‘t’, ‘x’, Boolean(name=’x’))

    will be:

        CONSTRAINT ck_bool_t_x CHECK (x in (1, 0)))

    The function is rendered in the output of autogenerate when a particular constraint name is already converted, for SQLAlchemy version 0.9.4 and greater only. Even though `naming_convention` was introduced in 0.9.2, the string disambiguation service is new as of 0.9.4.

    New in version 0.6.4.

  `get_bind`()

    Return the current ‘bind’.

    Under normal circumstances, this is the `Connection` currently being used to emit SQL to the database.

    In a SQL script context, this value is `None`. [TODO: verify this]

  `get_context`()

    Return the `MigrationContext` object that’s currently in use.

  classmethod `implementation_for`(op_cls)

    Register an implementation for a given `MigrateOperation`.

    This is part of the operation extensibility API.

    See also

    Operation Plugins - example of use

  `inline_literal`(value, type_=None)

    Produce an ‘inline literal’ expression, suitable for using in an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

    When using Alembic in “offline” mode, CRUD operations aren’t compatible with SQLAlchemy’s default behavior surrounding literal values, which is that they are converted into bound values and passed separately into the `execute()` method of the DBAPI cursor. An offline SQL script needs to have these rendered inline. While it should always be noted that inline literal values are an enormous security hole in an application that handles untrusted input, a schema migration is not run in this context, so literals are safe to render inline, with the caveat that advanced types like dates may not be supported directly by SQLAlchemy.

    See `execute()` for an example usage of `inline_literal()`.

    The environment can also be configured to attempt to render “literal” values inline automatically, for those simple types that are supported by the dialect; see `EnvironmentContext.configure.literal_binds` for this more recently added feature.

    Parameters: | value – The value to render. Strings, integers, and simple numerics should be supported. Other types like boolean, dates, etc. may or may not be supported yet by various backends. type_ – optional - a `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine` subclass stating the type of this value. In SQLAlchemy expressions, this is usually derived automatically from the Python type of the value itself, as well as based on the context in which the value is used.

    See also

    `EnvironmentContext.configure.literal_binds`

  `invoke`(operation)

    Given a `MigrateOperation`, invoke it in terms of this `Operations` instance.

    New in version 0.8.0.

  classmethod `register_operation`(name, sourcename=None)

    Register a new operation for this class.

    This method is normally used to add new operations to the `Operations` class, and possibly the `BatchOperations` class as well. All Alembic migration operations are implemented via this system, however the system is also available as a public API to facilitate adding custom operations.

    New in version 0.8.0.

    See also

    Operation Plugins

  `rename_table`(old_table_name, new_table_name, schema=None)

    Emit an ALTER TABLE to rename a table.

    Parameters: | old_table_name – old name. new_table_name – new name. schema – Optional schema name to operate within. To control quoting of the schema outside of the default behavior, use the SQLAlchemy construct `quoted_name`. New in version 0.7.0: ‘schema’ can now accept a `quoted_name` construct.

class `alembic.operations.``BatchOperations`(migration_context, impl=None)

  Modifies the interface `Operations` for batch mode.

  This basically omits the `table_name` and `schema` parameters from associated methods, as these are a given when running under batch mode.

  See also

  `Operations.batch_alter_table()`

  Note that as of 0.8, most of the methods on this class are produced dynamically using the `Operations.register_operation()` method.

  Construct a new `Operations`

  Parameters: | migration_context – a `MigrationContext` instance.

  `add_column`(column)

    Issue an “add column” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    See also

    `Operations.add_column()`

  `alter_column`(column_name, nullable=None, server_default=False, new_column_name=None, type_=None, existing_type=None, existing_server_default=False, existing_nullable=None, **kw)

    Issue an “alter column” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    See also

    `Operations.add_column()`

  `create_check_constraint`(constraint_name, condition, **kw)

    Issue a “create check constraint” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    The batch form of this call omits the `source` and `schema` arguments from the call.

    See also

    `Operations.create_check_constraint()`

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
  `create_foreign_key`(constraint_name, referent_table, local_cols, remote_cols, referent_schema=None, onupdate=None, ondelete=None, deferrable=None, initially=None, match=None, **dialect_kw)

    Issue a “create foreign key” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    The batch form of this call omits the `source` and `source_schema` arguments from the call.

    e.g.:

        with batch_alter_table("address") as batch_op:
            batch_op.create_foreign_key(
                        "fk_user_address",
                        "user", ["user_id"], ["id"])

    See also

    `Operations.create_foreign_key()`

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
    - referent -> referent_table
  `create_index`(index_name, columns, **kw)

    Issue a “create index” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    See also

    `Operations.create_index()`

  `create_primary_key`(constraint_name, columns)

    Issue a “create primary key” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    The batch form of this call omits the `table_name` and `schema` arguments from the call.

    See also

    `Operations.create_primary_key()`

  `create_unique_constraint`(constraint_name, columns, **kw)

    Issue a “create unique constraint” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    The batch form of this call omits the `source` and `schema` arguments from the call.

    See also

    `Operations.create_unique_constraint()`

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
  `drop_column`(column_name)

    Issue a “drop column” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    See also

    `Operations.drop_column()`

  `drop_constraint`(constraint_name, type_=None)

    Issue a “drop constraint” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    The batch form of this call omits the `table_name` and `schema` arguments from the call.

    See also

    `Operations.drop_constraint()`

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> constraint_name
  `drop_index`(index_name, **kw)

    Issue a “drop index” instruction using the current batch migration context.

    See also

    `Operations.drop_index()`

    Changed in version 0.8.0: The following positional argument names have been changed:

    - name -> index_name

class `alembic.operations.``MigrateOperation`

  base class for migration command and organization objects.

  This system is part of the operation extensibility API.

  New in version 0.8.0.

  See also

  Built-in Operation Objects

  Operation Plugins

  Customizing Revision Generation

  `info`

    A dictionary that may be used to store arbitrary information along with this `MigrateOperation` object.